Surface Treatment Dimensional Change Table: How Much Does the Diameter Change with Plating, Anodizing, Nitriding, PVD, Thermal Spray, and Electropolishing?
“Diameter 2t, threads 4t, anodizing a bit under half, nitriding: measure it” – remember just this and drawings won’t trip you up
Just writing “hard anodizing,” “nitriding,” or “TiN coating” on a drawing changes a part’s dimensions by anywhere from a few µm to several hundred µm. And how much it changes differs completely from one treatment to another: plating builds outward, anodizing goes half inward and half outward, and nitriding and carburizing form no film but swell and distort the whole part. This article puts 27 surface and heat treatments commonly used in the shop into a single quick-reference table covering coating thickness (layer depth), outward growth ratio, diameter change, process temperature and distortion, and standards, and adds a calculator for the size to machine before treatment, guidance on threads and fits, and how to write it on drawings. For how to identify platings and a detailed plating-allowance calculation, see “How to tell black oxide from plating, and how dimensions change”.
In short: dimensions change in 4 ways
- Builds outward (plating, PVD/DLC, thermal spray, paint): shaft diameter +2t, hole −2t, 60° thread pitch diameter ±4t (t = coating thickness per side)[1][13]
- Goes half inward (anodizing): the part that grows outward is 30–50% of the coating thickness. For 50 µm hard anodizing, the diameter increases by about 50 µm[1][3]
- Not a film (nitriding, carburizing, induction hardening): a hardened layer forms and the part swells or distorts slightly. The amount varies with steel grade and shape, so measure it on a trial part[19][18]
- Removes the surface (electropolishing, chemical polishing): shaft −2r, hole +2r (r = amount removed per side)[9]
Four ways dimensions change
In treatments such as plating and PVD that put another material on the surface, the film grows outward by exactly its thickness. On a shaft it forms on both sides, so the diameter changes by twice the coating thickness. Anodizing is a treatment that converts the aluminum itself into aluminum oxide, so part of the film forms inside the original surface. Nitriding, carburizing, and induction hardening are treatments in which nitrogen or carbon soaks in or the microstructure changes to produce a hard layer, with no film on the surface. Instead, the expansion from the microstructural change, and the release by heat of stresses left over from machining, change the size and shape of the whole part slightly[20][26].
Coating thickness and layer depth side by side
Even among “surface treatments,” 1 µm of DLC and 2 mm of induction hardening differ by more than 1,000 times. In the figure below, the horizontal axis is a logarithmic scale (each division is 10 times the previous one).
Quick-reference table: coating thickness and size change for 27 treatments
In the table, “Outward” is the share of the coating thickness that ends up outside the original surface (1 = all outward). “—” marks treatments that are not films. Values are based on the standards, public bodies, and manufacturer documents listed in the sources, and are approximate guides. Specify the actual coating thickness on the drawing and agree on it with your processor.* marks guide values for which no primary source was found.
Plating(builds outward)
| Treatment | Thickness / depth | Outward | Size change | Temperature / distortion | Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zinc plating + trivalent chromate Steel (bolts, sheet metal) | 5 µm–25 µm Typical: 8 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t, hole −2t; thread pitch diameter ±4t[11][13] | Aqueous bath near room temperature No thermal distortion. Watch for hydrogen embrittlement in high-strength steel | JIS H 8610, JIS B 1044 (ISO 4042) |
| Electroless nickel Steel, aluminum, copper alloys | 2.5 µm–76 µm Typical: 20 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t, hole −2t. Deposits at the same thickness deep in holes and in internal threads[6][7] | Heated bath (hardening heat treatment at about 400°C) None from the plating itself. Be careful with steels tempered at low temperature when using the hardening heat treatment | JIS H 8645 |
| Hard chrome Steel (hydraulic rods, rolls) | 5 µm–200 µm Typical: 50 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t. Normally plated thick and finished by grinding[8][28] | Aqueous bath (baked after plating) No thermal distortion. Thick at corners, thin in recesses | JIS H 8615 |
| Electroplated nickel* Steel, copper alloys | 5 µm–40 µm Typical: 10 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t, hole −2t. Thin deep in holes | Heated bath No thermal distortion | JIS H 8617 |
Anodizing(half goes inward, half grows outward)
| Treatment | Thickness / depth | Outward | Size change | Temperature / distortion | Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sulfuric (Type II) anodizing Aluminum alloys | 5 µm–25 µm Typical: 10 µm | 0.3–0.5 | Shaft +2g, hole −2g (g = 30–50% of the coating thickness)[1][3][2] | Sulfuric acid bath near room temperature No thermal distortion | JIS H 8601 (AA5–AA25) |
| Hard anodizing Aluminum alloys | 13 µm–114 µm Typical: 50 µm | 0.4–0.5 | Shaft about +t, hole about −t; thread pitch diameter about 2t[1][5] | Low-temperature sulfuric acid bath (e.g. 10°C) No thermal distortion. Corners need a radius | JIS H 8603, MIL-A-8625 Type III |
Conversion coating(the surface itself is converted; almost no change)
| Treatment | Thickness / depth | Outward | Size change | Temperature / distortion | Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Black oxide (triiron tetroxide) Steel (fixtures, tools) | 0.5 µm–2.5 µm Typical: 1 µm | — | Almost no change[16] | Alkaline bath at about 140°C None | MIL-DTL-13924 |
| Zinc phosphate (Parkerizing)* Steel (base for painting and forging) | 1 µm–20 µm Typical: 5 µm | — | Grows by a few µm depending on conditions. Mask fitted surfaces[17] | Heated bath None | MIL-DTL-16232 Type Z |
| Manganese phosphate* Steel (gears, sliding parts) | 1 µm–15 µm Typical: 5 µm | — | Outward growth figure not confirmed | Heated bath None | MIL-DTL-16232 Type M |
Diffusion and heat treatment(no film; swelling and distortion)
| Treatment | Thickness / depth | Outward | Size change | Temperature / distortion | Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gas nitriding Nitriding steel, alloy steel, tool steel | 200 µm–1 mm Typical: 500 µm | — | The whole part swells slightly (+0.036 mm over 90 mm of 42CrMo4)[19][20][21] | About 480–600°C Small, but release of residual stress can cause warping | JIS G 0562 |
| Ion (plasma) nitriding Tool steel, alloy steel, stainless steel | 50 µm–250 µm Typical: 150 µm | — | +0.06% for SCM440; +0.12–0.2% for SKD11 and stainless steel[18][19] | About 400–550°C Tool steel and stainless steel swell more | JIS G 0562 |
| Nitrocarburizing (Tufftride, etc.) Carbon steel, alloy steel, cast iron | 100 µm–500 µm Typical: 200 µm | — | Swells slightly (measured value not confirmed)[22][21] | About 540–590°C Smaller than carburizing. Temper the stock at a higher temperature beforehand | AMS 2759/13 |
| Carburize, quench Case-hardening steel (SCM415, SCr420) | 500 µm–1.5 mm Typical: 1 mm | — | Swelling and distortion from the transformation (example: roundness worsened by 21–64 µm on a φ80 ring)[23][24][25] | About 900–980°C → quench Large. Grind surfaces that need accuracy afterwards | JIS G 0557 |
| Induction hardening S45C, SCM440, SUJ2 | 1 mm–3 mm Typical: 1.5 mm | — | Direction and amount depend on the shape and the heated area[26][27] | Only the surface layer is heated rapidly and then quenched Large thermal-stress distortion. Do position-critical machining afterwards | JIS G 0559 |
Thin films(a thin layer builds outward)
| Treatment | Thickness / depth | Outward | Size change | Temperature / distortion | Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PVD (TiN, TiAlN, CrN) Tool steel, cemented carbide, hardened steel | 1 µm–5 µm Typical: 3 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t, hole −2t (2–10 µm on the diameter)[28][29] | About 200–500°C Small. For steels tempered at low temperature, use a low-temperature type | Specify by each supplier’s coating name |
| DLC Hardened steel, cemented carbide, aluminum | 0.5 µm–3 µm Typical: 1.5 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t, hole −2t (1–6 µm on the diameter)[28][30] | Mostly below 250°C Almost none | ISO 20523 (classification) |
| CVD (TiCN, Al2O3) Carbide tools, dies and molds | 5 µm–20 µm Typical: 10 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t. On steel, thermal distortion is larger[29] | About 700–1000°C Large for steel parts (they would need re-hardening) | Specify by each supplier’s coating name |
Thick films(a thick layer builds outward, then is ground to size)
| Treatment | Thickness / depth | Outward | Size change | Temperature / distortion | Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thermal spray (WC-Co, etc.) Steel, stainless steel (shafts, rolls) | 100 µm–300 µm Typical: 200 µm | 1 | Machine the base smaller by the spray allowance, then grind to size after spraying[31][32] | Substrate kept at low temperature Small to medium. Thin or long parts may warp | JIS H 8306 |
| Thermal spray (ceramics)* Steel, aluminum (rolls, insulation) | 100 µm–500 µm Typical: 200 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t. Finish fitted surfaces by grinding or lapping[33] | Substrate kept at low temperature Small to medium | JIS H 8304 |
| Powder coating Steel sheet, extruded aluminum | 60 µm–120 µm Typical: 75 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t, hole −2t (150 µm on the diameter at 75 µm)[34] | Baking Thin sheet may warp slightly | Paint specification |
| Paint (baked / solvent-borne)* Steel sheet, castings | 15 µm–40 µm Typical: 25 µm | 1 | Shaft +2t, hole −2t (primer + topcoat) | Room temperature to baking Almost none | Paint specification |
Removal(the surface is removed; the part gets smaller)
| Treatment | Thickness / depth | Outward | Size change | Temperature / distortion | Standard |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electropolishing Stainless steel | 5 µm–13 µm Typical: 8 µm | — | Shaft −2r, hole +2r (r = amount removed per side)[9] | Current passed through an acid bath None. Corners and thread crests get rounded | ASTM B912 |
| Chemical polishing* Copper alloys, aluminum, stainless steel | 1 µm–20 µm Typical: 5 µm | — | Shaft −2r, hole +2r. Removal is roughly proportional to time | Depends on the solution and the material None. Burrs and corners dissolve first | — |
| Pickling* Steel, stainless steel | 0 µm–10 µm Typical: 2 µm | — | Gets smaller by the amount of scale removed[10] | Depends on the solution None. Watch for hydrogen embrittlement in high-strength steel | — |
| Shot blasting* Steel, castings | 0 µm–20 µm Typical: 5 µm | — | Slightly smaller, and the surface gets rougher | Room temperature Thin sheet warps if only one side is blasted | — |
| Shot peening Springs, gears, shafts | — | — | Diameter almost unchanged. Thin parts warp[35] | Room temperature Warping is inversely proportional to the square of the plate thickness | AMS 2430 |
| Passivation Stainless steel | — | — | No change[10] | Nitric acid or citric acid bath None | ASTM A967 |
Calculator: what size to machine before treatment
Enter the size you want after treatment, and the calculator gives the size to machine before treatment. Coating thickness and outward growth ratio are filled in with the “Typical value” from the quick-reference table. Overwrite them with the values you agreed on with your processor.
- Diameter change is 2 × outward growth, 60° thread pitch diameter 4 × outward growth (a film deposited at right angles to the thread flank is displaced twice as much in the radial direction)[1][13][14]
- Nitriding, carburizing, and hardening are not “films,” so they are not calculated. As in the measured examples below, measure trial parts and correct the size before treatment
- Electroplating is thick at corners and thin deep in holes and at the roots of internal threads. Electroless nickel deposits at the same thickness all the way down a hole, so the calculation works as is[7][8]
Anodizing: “half” or “30%”?
How much anodizing adds to the size is described differently depending on the source. The U.S. military specification MIL-A-8625F does not distinguish regular from hard anodizing and says: “about 1/2 of the coating thickness per surface is added to the size”[1]. On the other hand, some processors’ explanations describe sulfuric (Type II) anodizing as “30% outward, 70% inward” and hard (Type III) anodizing as “half and half”[3], and a Japanese processor also explains that the size grows by 40–50% of the coating thickness[4].
- Conventional anodizing (5–25 µm): the film is thin to begin with, so size is often a minor problem. Where it matters on a fitted surface, allow a range of 30–50% of the coating thickness
- Hard anodizing is about 50 µm unless specified, and the coating thickness tolerance is ±20% (for 2 mil or less)[1]. The amount that grows outward is 25 ± 5 µm, which adds ±10 µm of variation to the diameter
- Aluminum alloys high in copper or silicon (such as die-casting alloys) grow films poorly, so the film comes out thinner under the same conditions[5]
- MIL-A-8625F recommends putting both the pre-treatment machined size and the post-treatment size on the drawing[1]. Inside small-diameter holes and internal threads, the film varies from none at all to the normal thickness
Nitriding, carburizing, hardening: swelling and distortion, not a film
Hearing “10 µm compound (white) layer” for nitriding, you might assume the diameter grows by 20 µm, but the actual size change is not determined by the compound layer thickness alone. It is the expansion of the diffused layer plus the release by heat of stresses left over from earlier machining[19][20].
| Measured example | Conditions | Dimensional change |
|---|---|---|
| 42CrMo4 (equivalent to SCM440), length 90 mm | Gas nitriding 530°C × 7 h, compound layer 18.4 µm | +0.036 mm (about 0.04%)[19] |
| Same as above | Plasma nitriding 520°C × 14 h, compound layer 6.4 µm | +0.032 mm[19] |
| Ground surface (same as above) | After nitriding | Dimensional tolerance grade went IT8 → IT9, a drop of one grade[19] |
| 10 mm square bar (SCM440) | Ion nitriding 550°C × 5 h | Across flats: +0.06% (about 6 µm)[18] |
| 10 mm square bar (SKD11, SKD61, stainless steel) | Same as above | +0.12–0.2% (12–20 µm). Almost no change for S45C[18] |
| Ring, OD 80 / ID 70 (case-hardening steel) | Quenching under carburizing conditions | Roundness worsened by 21–64 µm (varies with steel grade and grain size)[23] |
- The more alloying elements (Mn, Cr, Mo, V) a steel contains, the more it swells in nitriding, as a general trend[20]. Tool steel and stainless steel swell a lot, carbon steel little (table above)
- Nitriding is done below the transformation temperature (about 480–600°C), so distortion is smaller than with carburizing or induction hardening[21][19]. Use stock that has been tempered at a temperature higher than the nitriding temperature
- In carburizing and induction hardening, the transformation expansion of quenching and thermal stress add up, so surfaces that need accuracy are finished by grinding after hardening, and grinding stock is left on that assumption[24][26]. Because induction hardening heats only part of the part, one explainer says the strain from thermal stress can be three times or more the transformation expansion[26]
- Specify case depth by the measurement methods of JIS G 0557 (carburizing), JIS G 0559 (induction hardening), and JIS G 0562 (nitriding)[25]. One example is S45C φ40 induction hardened to an effective case depth of 1.8–1.9 mm[27]
PVD, DLC, CVD, thermal spray, paint
- PVD (TiN, TiAlN, CrN) is about 1–4 µm thick and follows the shape, so finished dimensions and fits are almost preserved. Process temperature is 200–500°C; for steels with a low tempering temperature, such as carburized parts, choose a low-temperature type below 250°C. Coating inside holes is poor: hole diameter > depth is the rule of thumb[28]
- DLC is 0.5–3 µm, mostly below 250°C, with almost no distortion[28]. ISO 20523 classifies it into 7 types by structure, hydrogen content, and added elements[30]
- CVD is thick at 5–20 µm and runs at a high process temperature of 700–1000°C, so for steel parts thermal distortion is a bigger problem than coating thickness. It is safest to think of it as a treatment for carbide tools[29]
- Thermal spray (WC-Co, etc.) is typically aimed at 200–300 µm[31], with the base machined smaller by the spray allowance and ground with a diamond wheel after spraying to reach the final size. Write “as-sprayed thickness” and “coating thickness after grinding” separately on the drawing[32]
- Powder coating is typically recommended at 70–80 µm[34], which changes the diameter by about 150 µm. Threaded holes, fitted surfaces, and ground-contact surfaces must be masked
Treatments that reduce size, and ones that don’t change it
- Electropolishing: NASA’s specification gives the removal as 0.0002–0.0005 in (about 5–13 µm) per surface; when a different amount is needed, write “remove X–Y per surface” on the drawing and verify by size or gauge[9]. Corners and thread crests are rounded
- Passivation only removes free iron from the stainless surface and conditions the oxide film; it does not cut into the base metal. The acceptance criterion is “no etching, pitting, or cloudiness”[10]
- Shot peening does not remove material, so the diameter barely changes, but thin parts warp if only one side is peened. The curvature of the warp is inversely proportional to the square of the plate thickness, so under the same conditions a 10 mm plate warps about 1/100 as much as a 1 mm plate[35]
Threads: make them a little smaller before plating
Plating a 60° thread with coating thickness t changes the pitch diameter by 4t. With 10 µm plating that is 40 µm, close to the width of an ordinary thread tolerance[13][14].
- Fastener threads follow JIS B 1044 (a translation of ISO 4042): the external thread before plating is made at the g, f, or e (G for internal threads) tolerance position, and after plating the h (H for internal threads) GO gauge must pass for the part to be accepted[11][12]
- The upper limit of coating thickness, so that the pitch diameter stays within the h line even after growing by 4t, is roughly 1/4 of the fundamental deviation. For M10 (pitch 1.5): about 8 µm for g, about 11 µm for f, and about 16 µm for e (calculated values)[12]
- Internal threads are tapped with an oversize tap that is larger by about 4 times the plating thickness. As a guide, 20 µm for 5 µm plating and 40 µm for 10 µm plating[15][13]
- Electroplating often does not deposit well deep in blind-hole internal threads, whereas electroless nickel gives the full 4t all the way down, so always consider an oversize tap[7]
For details on plating allowances and choosing gauges, see How to tell platings apart, and how dimensions change, and for the thread dimensions themselves, see the thread dimension tables.
Fits: coating thickness variation eats into the tolerance
The variation in diameter after treatment is machining variation + 2 × (variation in the outward growth). For hard anodizing at 50 µm ± 20%, that alone adds ±10 µm to the diameter, which nearly uses up the whole tolerance of φ20 IT7 (tolerance width 21 µm)[1]. One example of a coating thickness tolerance for ground hard chrome is 0.0005 in (about 13 µm)[8]. For fitted surfaces with tight tolerances, decide on one of the following on the drawing (Fit tolerance calculation).
- Finish after treatment: bring it to size by grinding, honing, or lapping (the standard approach for hard chrome, thermal spray, and carburizing)
- Don’t treat the fitted surface: mask it so that no film is applied to fitted surfaces and threads
- Measure a trial part and compensate: measure before and after treatment using the same material and the same processor, and set the size before treatment (nitriding, anodizing)
How to write it on drawings
- Always state whether the dimension is before treatment or after treatment. For anodizing, MIL recommends writing both[1]
- Write coating thickness and removal as a Scope (example: coating thickness after grinding 0.0020–0.0050 in; 0.0002–0.0004 in removed per surface)[8][9]
- For threads, as in “6h (6H) after plating,” specify the tolerance class of the gauge used for inspection on the drawing[11]
- For nitriding, carburizing, and induction hardening, write the hardness and effective case depth, and whether finish grinding follows[25]
Common mistakes
- The h gauge won’t go on after plating: the thread was made at h (6h) before plating. Before plating, make it at g, f, or e
- The hard anodized fit is too tight: the allowance of half of the 50 µm coating thickness × 2 = 50 µm on the diameter was not included
- The ground surface goes out of tolerance after nitriding: it was calculated from the compound layer only. Measure the swelling and the release of stress left from earlier machining on a trial part
- Hole positions shift after carburizing and hardening: a hole where position matters was finished before hardening. Machine it after hardening or leave stock
- Die distorts after CVD: the process temperature exceeded the hardening temperature. For precision steel parts, choose low-temperature PVD
- Bolts won’t go in after powder coating: the threaded holes were not masked (the diameter shrinks by about 150 µm)
- Threads get thinner after electropolishing: the removal amount was not on the drawing. Specify the removal per surface as a range
FAQ
- How much does plating increase the diameter?
- Plating builds outward by its coating thickness, so a shaft’s diameter grows by twice the coating thickness and a hole shrinks by twice the coating thickness. For 8 µm zinc plating, that is 16 µm on the diameter. The pitch diameter of a 60° thread changes by 4 times the coating thickness (about 32 µm for 8 µm).
- What fraction of the coating thickness does anodizing add to the size?
- MIL-A-8625F says “about 1/2 of the coating thickness per surface,” but some processor documents give 30% for sulfuric (Type II) anodizing and 40–50% for hard (Type III) anodizing. For parts where the fit matters, allow a range of 30–50% and decide by measuring a trial part.
- Does nitriding change the size?
- Yes. No film is deposited on the surface; instead the whole part swells slightly because of the expansion of the nitrogen-infused layer and the release of stress left from earlier machining. Measured examples include +0.036 mm over 90 mm of 42CrMo4, and +0.12–0.2% on tool steel and stainless steel square bars. The amount varies with steel grade and shape, so for parts with tight tolerances, measure a trial part.
- Do black oxide or passivation change the size?
- Black oxide (a triiron tetroxide film) is about 1 µm and forms on the base-metal side, so the size barely changes. Passivation of stainless steel does not cut into the base metal, so the size does not change.
Related: How to tell black oxide from plating, and how dimensions change (plating allowance calculator) / Fits and Tolerances / Thread dimensions / Workpiece material database / Drafting (how to write drawings)
Sources
- U.S. Department of Defense, “MIL-A-8625F Anodic Coatings for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys” (1993, PDF)
- Japanese Standards Association: JIS H 8601:2025 Anodic oxide coatings on aluminium and aluminium alloys (preview)
- Micron Coatings Group, “Type II vs Type III anodizing: clear and hard anodizing” (processor’s explainer)
- ULVAC TECHNO, “Anodizing” (processor’s explainer)
- Hio et al., Mie Prefecture Industrial Research Institute, “Anodizing characteristics of aluminum alloys used in die casting,” Research Report No. 39 (2015, PDF)
- NASA Johnson Space Center: PRC-5007 Process Specification for Electroless Nickel Plating (PDF)
- Technical document, “The Engineering Properties of Electroless Nickel Coatings” (1983, PDF)
- NASA Johnson Space Center, “PRC-5003 Process Specification for Chromium Plating,” Rev. D (2020, PDF)
- NASA Johnson Space Center, “PRC-5009 Process Specification for Electropolishing of Corrosion Resistant Steel,” Rev. B (2019, PDF)
- NASA Johnson Space Center, “PRC-5002 Process Specification for Passivation and Pickling of Metallic Materials,” Rev. G (2021, PDF)
- Japanese Standards Association: JIS B 1044:2024 Fasteners – Electroplated coating systems (translation of ISO 4042:2022, preview)
- Torqbolt, “ISO 4042 Zinc, Zinc Nickel, Cadmium Plated Fasteners” (ISO 4042 explainer)
- Yamawa Mfg. Co., “Plating thickness and oversize amount” (technical document)
- Yamawa Mfg. Co., “Plating thickness on external threads and undersize amount of dies” (technical document)
- OSG FAQ, “How much oversize should the tap have when internal threads are to be plated?”
- Parker Processing, “Paproblack (thick-film triiron tetroxide coating treatment)”
- Parker Processing, “Paprobond (zinc phosphate coating treatment)”
- Tsuruoka, Oita Prefectural Industrial Research Institute, “Ion nitriding of steel,” research report (1990, PDF)
- D. Dobrocký et al., “Change in Dimensions and Surface Roughness of 42CrMo4 Steel after Nitridation in Plasma and Gas,” Coatings 12(10), 1481 (2022)
- Imataka et al., “Development of steel for high-strength nitrided gears,” Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal Technical Report No. 406 (2016, PDF)
- Hiraoka, Ishida, and Umezawa, “Effect of the surface compound phase on the rotating bending fatigue strength of gas-nitrided SCM435 steel,” Journal of the Japan Society for Heat Treatment 57(2) (2017, Yokohama National University repository)
- Super Systems Inc., “Exploring Ferritic Nitrocarburizing and Different Post-Oxidation Treatments,” Industrial Heating (2018, PDF)
- Tanaka et al., “Effect of prior austenite grain size on heat-treatment distortion of carburized material,” Denki-Seiko (Electric Furnace Steel) 90(1) (2019, PDF)
- JTEKT, “Analysis of the deformation mechanism of bearing rings under conventional hardening and carburizing,” JTEKT Engineering Journal No. 1009 (2011, PDF)
- Japanese Standards Association, “JIS G 0557:2025 Steels – Determination of depth of carburized and hardened case” (preview)
- Fuji Electronic Industry, “Transformation expansion strain and thermal stress strain: martensite” (technical explainer by an induction hardening company)
- Niigata Industrial Technology Research Institute, “Microstructure and hardness of induction-hardened carbon steel S45C,” Technical Topics (2020, PDF)
- Oerlikon Balzers, “Coated components – Greater performance and reliability” (technical document, PDF)
- Cutting Tool Engineering, "Get chemical with CVD-coated inserts"
- Ogawa and Tanaka, Gifu Prefectural Industrial Technology Center, “Study on improving the adhesion of carbon-based hard coatings (Part 1),” Research Report No. 7 (2025, PDF)
- K. Torkashvand et al., “Tribological Performance of Thin HVAF-Sprayed WC-CoCr Coatings Fabricated Employing Fine Powder Feedstock,” Journal of Thermal Spray Technology (2023)
- Japanese Standards Association, “JIS H 8306:2009 Thermal spraying – Cermet” (preview)
- Japanese Standards Association, “JIS H 8304:2024 Thermal spraying – Ceramic” (preview)
- TIGER Coatings, “TIGER Drylac Processing Instructions,” data sheet 1213 (Japanese, 2022 edition, PDF)
- D. Kirk, “Component Shape Changes Caused by Shot Peening,” The Shot Peener (2012, PDF)
More articles
Surface treatmentBlack Oxide and Industrial Plating: How to Identify Them and How They Change Dimensions – Phosphate (Parker), Clear Chromate (Unichro), Trivalent Chromate, Electroless Nickel, Hard Chrome, Anodizing
NCMachining Center Programming for Beginners: A Browser Simulator and Graded Exercises
News